Mechanisms of V.cholerae Cytolysin (VCC)

Mechanisms of V.cholerae Cytolysin (VCC) V.cholerae cytolysin (VCC) is a pore-forming toxin secreted by many pathogenic strains of the Gram-negative bacteria V.cholerae the causative pathogen of diarrheal disease cholera. VCC display potent cytotoxic activity against the erythrocytes and mammalian cells. It is also reported to possess enterotoxin activity in terms of inducing bloody fluid accumulation in the rabbit ileal loops. Based on these observations, VCC has been believed as a potential virulence factor of V.cholerae. VCC, in particular, secreted by the pathogenic strain lacking ‘cholera toxin’, the primary virulence factor of V.cholerae that responsible for inducing the massive dehydrating diarrhea disease during V.cholerae infection. VCC is encoded by the hlyA gene present in V.cholerae chromosome two. VCC toxin is synthesized as a ~ 81 kDa protein, called Pre-Pro-VCC. During the secretion of toxin, the N-terminal signal peptide composed of 25-residue is removed to generate a nonfunctional precursor form of the VCC molecule, named as Pro-VCC. Following, ~ 15 kDa N-terminal sequences from Pro-VCC is proteolytically deleted that resulting the formation of the functional mature form of the toxin. Proteolytic activation of the toxin is mediated by the HA/protease, which display the major extracellular proteolytic activity of V.cholerae. Conversion from Pro-VCC into the mature state of the VCC can also be obtained in vitro by other proteases like trypsin, chymotrypsin, and subtilisin. It has been reported that the activation of the Pro-VCC can be resulted by the proteolytic activity of the proteases present on the surface of the target host cell membrane as well. Functional mature form of the toxin has been displaying to induce lysis of the erythrocytes and other eukaryotic cells by generating the heptameric oligomeric pore structure of 1-2 nm diameters. The functional membrane permeabilization ability of the toxin could also be resembled in the membrane lipid bilayer of the synthetic liposomes. Along with its membrane permeabilization activity, VCC toxin also displayed a prominent lectin-like activity by binding to the complex glycoproteins and glycolipids with the terminal ÃŽ ²1-galactosyl component. VCC is characterized as a member of ÃŽ ²-PFTs and reported that the toxin follow the overall scheme of the generalized ÃŽ ²-PFT mode of action. Structural Features of VCC VCC is secreted as a water-soluble monomeric form of the toxin, which after the removal of the N-terminal Pro-domain gets converted into the mature functional form of the molecule. VCC induces lysis of its target cells by generating heptameric oligomeric pores on the membrane. The high-resolution structure of the water-soluble, monomeric precursor state Pro-VCC toxin has been determined. Heptameric transmembrane structure of the VCC has also been determine recently. Many previous studies confirmed that the VCC is a ÃŽ ²-PFTs family member, and the toxin employed pore-forming activity by generating the transmembrane heptameric ÃŽ ²-barrel pores on the target cell membrane. Consistent with the ÃŽ ²-PFTs tramsmembrane pore structure, pore complex of VCC represent a mushroom-shaped organization, which can be divided into two parts: (a) transmembrane b-barrel structural, and (b) membrane interacting rim domain. Structural analysis of the VCC molecule highlights many unique features which are not reported in the archetypical member of ÃŽ ²-PFTs family. Consistent with the structural of archetypical ÃŽ ²-PFTs, VCC harbors a central cytolysin domain that constitutes the core structure of the mushroom-shaped oligomeric transmembrane pore structure. The cytolysin domain contains the pore-forming stem-loop of the toxin. Apart from cytolysin domain, VCC structure also contains three additional structural domain which are not commonly documented in any other member of b-PFTs family: an N-terminal Pro-domain in the inactive Pro-VCC precursor state of the toxin, and two lectin-like domain name ÃŽ ²-Trefoil domain and ÃŽ ²-Prism lectin-like domain at the C-terminal side of the cytolysin domain. Cytolysin domain The VCC molecular structure contains 325 amino acid long cytolysin domain that structurally similar with the cytolysin domains present in the member of ÃŽ ²-PFTs like S. aureus ÃŽ ±-hemolysin. Cytolysin domain of the VCC during the membrane pore-formation process inserts its ‘pre-stem’ region into the lipid bilayer and generates ÃŽ ²-barrel structure on the membrane and provides the central scaffold of the pore structure. VCC generate mushroom-shaped oligomeric transmembrane pore structures that can be classify into two major parts: (a) transmembrane region that make the ÃŽ ²-barrel pore structure, and, (b) membrane interacting rim-domain that interact with the membrane surface. The membrane inserted ÃŽ ²-barrel structure of the VCC pore structure is composed solely of the central cytolysin domain of the toxin. Notably, the majority of the rim-domain is also generated by the cytolysin domain. Cytolysin domain of the toxin harbors the 42-residue long ‘pore-forming loop’ loop that involve in the formation of the transmembrane ÃŽ ²-barrel pore structure. In the water soluble monomeric form of the toxin, this region remains completely folded against the cytolysin domain, in the form of a so named ‘pre-stem’ motif. During the process of the functional pore-formation, the ‘pre-stem’ loop from each of the participating protomers undergoes enormous structure recognition to obtain a so-called ‘stem’ configuration, and inserted into the lipid bilayer of the membrane. Stem region from each of the protomers contributes two ÃŽ ²-strands towards the formation of the stem region of the heptameric ÃŽ ²-barrel pore structure. Heptameric oligomer highlights that the stem regions make the extensive interaction between the neighboring protomers and hence contribute towards the robust stability of the transmembrane oligomeric assembly. Apart from the pore-forming stem-loop segment, other part of the cytolysin domain contains the membrane-proximal rim-domain of the transmembrane pore structure. Structural analysis of the ÃŽ ²-PFTs pore, suggests that the membrane-proximal rim-domain work as the structure motif for transmembrane pores. Rim-domain acts as structural scaffolds that mediate interaction of the protein with the lipid head-group of the target membrane lipid bilayer. Cytolysin domain of the VCC contributes towards the interaction of the toxin with the lipid head-group of the membrane. Pro-domain As mentioned previously, VCC toxin is secreted by yet bacteria as the water-soluble inactive precursor state called Pro-VCC. The high resolution three-dimensional structure of Pro-VCC molecule shown the presence of ~ 15 kDa Pro-domain, which make contact to the N-terminal of the core cytolysin domain through a 29-residue long flexible linker.The linker region harbors ~ amino acid long structural motif that act as the cleavage site(s) for a group of proteases. Proteolytic removal of the Pro-domain at this linker sequence resulted in the generation of a mature form of the toxin. The presence of the Pro-domain in the precursor form of the toxin has been reported to be critical for the efficient secretion and the appropriate folding of the VCC molecule. One earlier study has been reported that the recombinant V.cholerae cells, containing the deleted variant of hlyA gene lacking the sequence for the Pro-domain, unable to secrete the protein outside the bacterial cells. In vitro denaturati on/renaturation, assay have demonstrated that without the Pro-domain VCC fails to refold back to its active conformation, whereas Pro-VCC can obtain proper refolding. Recent study on Pro-domain, suggested that the presence of Pro-domain increase the unfolding property of the Pro-VCC molecule in response to many denaturing conditions, whereas mature active form of the toxin display considerable resistant towards the unfolding of the toxin. Overall, these studies suggested, the Pro-domain show an intramolecular chaperone-like activity in term of providing significant level of structural plasticity in the VCC structure, which probably essential for the efficient secretion of the toxin in its precursor from across the bacterial membrane. However, it’s not clear so far how the presence of the Pro-domain keep the protein in its precursor form. ÃŽ ²-Trefoil lectin-like domain: VCC harbors a ÃŽ ²-Trefoil lectin-like domain (~ 15 kDa) at the C-terminal edge of the center cytolysin domain. This ÃŽ ²-Trefoil lectin-like domain is also present in related cytolysin from Vibrionaceae bacteria, but not present in the archetypical ÃŽ ²-PFTs protein for example S. aureus ÃŽ ±-hemolysin. The ÃŽ ²-Trefoil lectin-like domain is associated with the cytolysin domain through a short linker sequence constitute of Gly-Gly-Arg-Pro. The ÃŽ ²-Trefoil lectin-like domain of VCC display structural similar to the carbohydrate-interacting domain of the plant toxin ricin, and featured the presence of the QXW conserved carbohydrate-interacting motif (s) observed in the archetypical ÃŽ ²-Trefoil lectin domains of carbohydrate binding lectins. However, the carbohydrate binding propensity of the ÃŽ ²-Trefoil domain of VCC has not been elucidated. Also, the implications of the ÃŽ ²-Trefoil domain in the structure-function mechanism of the VCC need to be explored in future. ÃŽ ²-Prism lectin-like domain: The VCC harbors an additional ~ 15 kDa domain that is linked to the C-terminal of the ÃŽ ²-Trefoil domain through the long linker sequence.This domain is not present in any other member of the ÃŽ ²-PFTs family, including the cytolysin secreted by V.vulnificus and Aeromonas hydrophilia.The C-terminal domain of the VCC display structural similarity to several ÃŽ ²-Prism lectins including jacalin and Maclura pomifera agglutinin (MAP). VCC ÃŽ ²-Prism lectin-like domain possess a binding pocket similar to the carbohydrate-binding site of the jacalin and MPA lectins. Recently, we have conclusively established the role of ÃŽ ²-Prism domain in the lectin activity of the toxin. In the absence of the ÃŽ ²-Prism domain, VCC toxin did not show lectin activity towards ÃŽ ²-1 galactosyls terminated glycoconjugates. We have identified the critical site within the ÃŽ ²-Prism domain which responsible for the lectin activity of the toxin. We reported that the amino acid tried (composed of Asp617, Tyr6 54, and Tyr679) located within the putative carbohydrate-interacting pocket generate the crucial element for the VCC lectin activity. Overall, it has been established that the ÃŽ ²-Prism domain of the VCC act as structural scaffold playing a critical role in the lectin-like activity of the toxin. During the process of functional pore-formation in the lipid bilayer of the target host membrane, VCC molecule undergoes enormous structural reorganization. The ÃŽ ²-Prism domain of the VCC obtained two different positions with respect to the core cytolysin domain, in the monomeric precursor form (Pro-VCC) and the transmembrane pore structure. In monomeric water-soluble inactive precursor Pro-VCC, the ÃŽ ²-Prism domain positioned on the opposite side of the Pro-domain on top of the pre-stem region, whereas in the transmembrane pore structure it is relocated in the place of the Pro-domain. This structural rearrangement of the ÃŽ ²-Prism domain is mandatory for the membrane insertion, and the functional oligomeric pore-formation procedure. In the absence of such structural reorganization of the ÃŽ ²-Prism domain, it would be located in such a way that would generate steric hindrance between the contributing protomers and subsequently block the oligomerization of the toxin. Also, without such reorganization of the ÃŽ ²-Prism domain, the pre-stem loop would not be able to unfold for the membrane insertion of the toxin. Overall it appears that the ÃŽ ²-Prism domain-mediated lectin activity of the toxin might act as a triggering mechanism to allow such structural reorganization of the ÃŽ ²-Prism domain with respect to core cytolysin domain. Our study suggested that the presence of the ÃŽ ²-Prism domain in VCC molecule is critical for the efficient membrane pore-formation of the toxin. The ÃŽ ²-Prism domain truncated variant of the toxin display abortived membrane pore-formation. However, in the absence of ÃŽ ²-Prims domain, VCC molecule could generate membrane-associate oli gomers but does not show any functional membrane pore-forming activity. Structural reorganizations during oligomeric pore-formation: Structural analysis of the water-soluble monomeric form and the transmembrane oligomeric structure of VCC reveal that the VCC molecule undergoes structural reorganization within the toxin monomer during the process of the oligomeric transmembrane pore-forming procedure. The most critical structural change is the unfolding the ‘pre-stem’ region from the cytolysin domain, and its insertion into the lipid bilayer to generate ‘stem’ configuration. In the water soluble monomeric structure of Pro-VCC, the ‘pre-stem’ region remains packed between the b-Prism domain and the cytolysin domain of the toxin. Hence, the movement of ÃŽ ²-Prism domain is essential for the conversion of ‘pre-stem’ to the ‘stem’ region of the toxin. During the formation of the functional pore-formation of the toxin on the membrane, the ÃŽ ²-Prism domain of the toxin reorients with respect to the central cytolysin domain by almost 180o angle, and attends the location where the Pro-domain was located in the Pro-VCC molecule structure. This reorganization of the ÃŽ ²-Prism domain of the VCC represents the second most critical structural change involved in the membrane pore-formation of the VCC toxin. The structural change in the position of the ÃŽ ²-Prism allows the ‘pre-stem’ to undergo the reorganization for the following membrane insertion and the functional heptameric pore-formation process. Structural Features of the VCC ÃŽ ²-Barrel Pore Earlier study based on the Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) characterized the transmembrane oligomer of VCC as typical ring-like structures with the inner diameter of almost 1-2 nm. Inhibitions in the cell cytotoxic ability by the osmoprotectants of defined molecular sizes have also advised similar pre diameter for VCC oligomer pore. Single channel conductance measurement by using the VCC oligomeric pore generated in the synthetic lipid bilayer suggested that VCC produce anion-selective diffusion channels. This analysis also indicated that the VCC pore is having asymmetric pore geometry: larger opening in the ‘cis-side’ than in the ‘trans-side’ with a narrow region at the central part of the human. The high-resolution structure of the VCC oligomer suggests ‘cup-shaped’ lumen geometry of the pore. Analysis of the oligomeric pore structure also suggests that the narrow constriction near the central of the pore lumen is generated by the aroma tic ring of a tryptophan residue contributed by each of the participating protomers during heptameric pore-formation. Mechanism of Membrane Pore-formation The functional pore-formation of the ÃŽ ²-PFTs involve on the membrane lipid bilayer of the target cells involves three distinct steps: (i) interaction of the water-soluble monomeric form of the toxin towards the target cell membrane; (ii) self-assembly of the membrane-associated monomeric toxin to generate the intermediate ‘pre-pore’ oligomeric assembly on the membrane surface; (iii) conversion from the transient ‘pre-pore’ oligomeric assembly to the functional transmembrane pore structure. During the process of the pore-formation, the pore-forming ‘stem-loop’ of the toxin inserted into the membrane lipid bilayer and generates the transmembrane ÃŽ ²-barrel structure. Many structural studies reported that the member of ÃŽ ²-PFTs follow the similar way of pore-formation on the membrane. However, each member of the ÃŽ ²-PFTs family differs from each other in the definite step towards the pore-formation process. Membrane interaction step displays e normous range of variation in term of receptor specificity, the role of different lipid component and presence of specific carbohydrate receptor on the membrane. Notably, the molecular mechanism that involve the discrete steps for the functional pore-formation are not properly elucidate for most of the ÃŽ ²-PFTs members. The pore-formation on the membrane by VCC can resemble in the synthetic lipid bilayer liposomes indicating that the membrane association step does not critically required any particular non-lipid components. However, the membrane pore-formation is reported more efficient in the biomembrane as compared to that in the synthetic lipid bilayer of the liposomes, indicating the role of extra molecule present on the cell membrane plays significant role in the pore-formation process. For example, erythrocytes are more susceptible compared to the liposome. Notably, VCC toxin displays a different level of hemolytic activity towards the erythrocytes of the different species. R abbit erythrocytes are found to exhibit more sensitive as compared to the human erythrocytes. Earlier studies have suggested the role of many cell surface receptor proteins (e.g., glycophorin B on the human erythrocytes) as a potential receptor molecule for the VCC toxin. VCC displayed potent lectin-like activity towards the interacting with the cell membrane. However, the specific receptor for the VCC has not been identified. The formation of the transmembrane oligomeric pore structure can be induced in the presence of the synthetic lipid bilayer liposomes. A previous study suggested that the binding of the VCC molecule with the liposomes driven mostly by global amphiphilicity of the monomeric state of the toxin. However, the self-assembly of the toxin and membrane pore-formation has been observed more specific events required the specific components of the membrane. More importantly, the presence of the cholesterol in the lipid bilayer of the membrane has been reported to play cri tical role in the membrane pore-formation of the toxin. In our recent study, we identified the specific lipid-binding structure motif present within the cytolysin domain of the toxin. However, our study suggested that the specific motif is responsible for the lipid association in general not specific towards the cholesterol presence in the lipid bilayer of the membrane. In the pore-formation process of the VCC, the ‘pore-forming loop’ of the toxin unfolds and insert into the membrane toward the generation of the functional pore-formation. It is reported that the trapping of the pore-forming stem-loop in its pres-stem configuration through engineered disulfide linkage could arrest the toxin in its pre-pore oligomeric assembly. Also, a VCC variant without the pre-stem loop is found to remain arrest in the pre-pore oligomer on the membrane surface. Overall these studies suggested that the VCC follows the archetypical ÃŽ ²-PFTs mechanism of pore-formation. A previous study indicated that the membrane interaction of the VCC precedes membrane oligomerization. Many environmental factors also affect the binding and oligomerization events of the toxin. For example, membrane association can occur even at a low temperature of 4 oC while the membrane oligomerization and functional pore-formation blocked under the similar condition. This observation clearly indicated that the association of the toxin with the target cell membrane is distinct step from its subsequent oligomerization and pore-formation steps.

The Great Depression And The Bay Area.... :: essays research papers

The Great Depression progressively got worse and then progressively got better. Coming in and out of the depression was not an over night thing, It included lots of planning and action. There were a few major causes of the Great Depression,. The United states had three consecutive conservative presidents in the 1920's Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover. They all believed in mechanization which in turn put thousands of people out of work, and the trickle down theory where the money that the rich spent was supposed to somehow make it’s way though the system to the poor. The money never made it so the poor had to find some way to get money and that was through loans from the banks. The poor had no way of making money which made it close to impossible to pay back the loans plus the interest thus, beginning the ban and loan crisis. Banks were closing rapidly because of the money loss. This led to the concentration of wealth the top two percent of the US owned sixty percent of the money and the rest of the people were poor. Mechanization caused massive over production which put the US in a strain because of it’s lack of consumers. So they cut production and raised prices which was still ineffective. With food being too expensive work, and housing was scarce the poor were forced to make housing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With a combination of mechanization, conservative presidents, concentration of the wealth because of the trickle down theory, and higher taxes on the poor, the poor worked harder and steadily got poorer. Mexican Americans got deported during the depression because they felt that they were taking all the jobs. Hoover’s response to the Depression was shaped his conservative Republican ideas. He thought that the poor were lazy and that the rich became rich because they worked hard. The believed in â€Å"Big Business†, and that the money would â€Å"trickle down† if the poor worked harder. He thought that the Depression would solve itself. He thought that big business would end the depression. So that’s why he didn’t take actions sooner in the Depression. Hoover waited too long to take action thus, resulting in him getting blamed for the Depression Roosevelt, unlike the presidents before him took action in an attempt to end the depression. When Roosevelt took office in 1933, the country was in the middle of the Great Depression.

hamlet :: essays research papers

Hamlet Essay   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After reading Hamlet, I have realized that some of Shakespeare’s original play must be abridged for our production. After careful analysis I have decided that of the four soliloquies in the play we should only include two of them. I have discovered that two of these soliloquies are not that important in understanding the meaning of the play.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In order to see which two we should include or omit we have to summarize all four soliloquies. The first one, which begins â€Å"O that this too, too sullied flesh...†, is an emotionally violent speech. Hamlet wishes he were dead, complains that suicide is a sin, and describes the world as useless and disgusting. He then talks about his father, comparing him to Claudius. He calls Claudius a half-man half-beast creature. The second soliloquy, which begins â€Å"O what a rogue and pleasant slave am I...†, Hamlet compares himself to a mythical character named Hecuba and wonders what the latter would do in his situation. He then accuses himself of being a coward who can’t even avenge his father’s dead. He also calls himself an idiot before devising a plan to remedy the situation. â€Å"To be or not to be...† (third soliloquy) is basically a debate on life and whether it is worth living. Hamlet here questions death and says that all men fear death. Hamlet ends here by saying conscience makes cowards of us all for when we think of the consequences of an action we do not take it. And finally the fourth soliloquy which begins â€Å"How all occasions to inform against me...† is an expression of Hamlet’s shame and amazement that others can act when he himself can’t. Hamlet here realizes that he can’t escape from his destiny and has a sense of feeling of what is about to happen to him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After paraphrasing all four soliloquies a decision has to be made as to what to include. The two which should be included are the first and third ones. The first one should be included because it allows the audience to hear Hamlet’s innermost thoughts. This speech sets precedence for the rest of the play. In this speech Hamlet expresses his grievances toward the people he is supposed to love. It is an outpouring of a man in deep distress. It not only puts Hamlet in confusion but the audience which has to decide if Hamlet is crazy or not as the play develops. The third soliloquy should also be included because it is the most famous speech in all of the English language.

Hopelessness of the Irish in Nineteenth Century England Essay -- Europ

Hopelessness of the Irish in Nineteenth Century England Throughout my research into the subject of the Irish in England's industrial north during the early nineteenth century, one fact became quite clear; contemporary writers' treatment of the Irish was both minimal and negative. I consulted many sources, Friedrich Engels, Leon Faucher, James Kay-Shuttleworth to name but a few and the reoccurring theme as pertaining to the Irish in all these works was mainly consistent; the Irish were a lazy, vulgar people prone to drinking and brawling. It was not until 1841 that Great Britain's government made its first attempt to count the number of Irish migrants in the Census of 1841. Data compiled from the actual census and other parliamentary sources at the time illuminate the fact that in 1841 and in the preceding years of this century, most migrants from Ireland were of the seasonal type. Typically, they would plant their potatoes in their mostly minuscule plots of land in May, travel to Great Britain for the summer months to partake of seasonal harvesting work and return in time for their own harvest. During this same time there were Irish who settled in Great Britain on a more permanent basis but they were outnumbered by their fellow countrymen who were strictly seasonal migrants. This latter group seemed quite successful in finding work in the agricultural districts of the industrial north, those parts of the country surrounding Manchester, Liverpool and the other great towns. After the Irish potato famine of 1822, the in flux of Irish into England grew and a large majority of these were seasonal migrants. These Irish were in great demand in the agricultural districts of England and in Labour Migration in England 1800-1850, Ar... ...ion of the Working Class in England Oxford University Press,1993. Faucher, Leon. Manchester in 1844. Frank Cass and Company Limited,1969. Gaskell, Elizabeth. Mary Barton. Penguin Group 1970,1985. Gaskell, Peter. The Manufacturing Population of England: Its Moral, Social. and Physical Condition and the Changes which have Arisen from the Use of Steam Machinery, with an Examination of Infant Labour. Baldwin & Cradock, 1833. Harris, Ruth-Ann M. The Nearest Place That Wasn't Ireland. Iowa University Press,1994. Jackson, John Archer. The Irish in Britain. Richard Clay and Company,1963. Kay-Shuttleworth, James. The Moral and Physical Condition of the Working Classes Employed in the Cotton Manufacture of Manchester. Frank Cass and Company Limited, 2nd ed. 1970. Redford, Arthur. Labour Migration in England 1800-1850. Manchester,1926 reprint,1964.

Essay on Dream Deferred in Song of Solomon -- Song Solomon essays

The American Dream Deferred in Song of Solomon      Ã‚   Beginning with the first African American literary works through the more recent successes such as Toni Morrison's Song of Solomon the topic of literacy is almost inextricably connected to freedom and power. A closer investigation, however, leads the reader to another, less direct, message indicating that perhaps this belief in literacy as a pathway to the "American Dream" of freedom and social and financial success is contradictory or, at least, insufficient in social and cultural terms. In this way, African American literature reconstructs the "American Dream" into an even more complex "dream deferred."    Toni Morrison deconstructs the "American Dream" and the "literacy myth" in The Song of Solomon by deriding formal education and literacy while emphasizing oral family history. A most blatant ridicule of formal education comes to the reader in the story of First Corinthians Dead, the only character in the novel to attend college. First Corinthians finds that education made her "a little too elegant" (188), and that "Bryn Mawr had done what a four-year dose of liberal education was designed to do: unfit her for eighty percent of the useful work of the world," (189). At forty-two, First Corinthians is untrained, unmarried and unfulfilled, thanks to her college education.    Milkman, on the other hand, is not sent to college and is ultimately educated by the oral family history revealed by Pilate and the townspeople of Shalimar, Virginia. Milkman's freedom comes only after he breaks the chains of the "American Dream" myth his father is slave to and seeks out his history, his culture, and his identity.    Milkman's father, Macon Dead II, is certain that... ...eedom, independence and equality built on the successful negotiation of not just illiteracy, but of a history of social and cultural denial. Such is the nature of the dream deferred.    WORKS CITED Bloom, Harold, ed. Modern Critical Views: Toni Morrison. New York: Chelsea House Publishing, 1990. Graff, Harvey J. The Literacy Myth: Literacy and Social Structure in the Nineteenth-Century City. New York: Academic Press, 1979. McKay, Nellie, editor, Critical Essays on Toni Morrison, G.K. Hall, 1988. Morrison, Toni. Song of Solomon. New York: The Penguin Group, 1977. Sapphire. Push. New York: Vintage Contemporaries, 1996. Peterson, Nancy J. Toni Morrison: Critical and Theoretical Approaches. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1997. Rice, Herbert William. Toni Morrison and the American Tradition: A Rhetorical Reading. New York: P. Lang, 1996.

From the Immigrants

The Emigrants by Edward Kamau Brathwaite The poem from The Emigrants by Edward Kamau Brathwaite is the thoughts of an indigenous inhabitant, the persona, thinking of the invasion that has been so abruptly brought upon them which they must now face. We know that the persona is one of the inhabitants because in line four and twelve, the repetition of â€Å"my† personalizes what is happening, coming from an inhabitant’s perspective. The themes perception versus reality, power, discovery and war throughout the poem explain and break down the content of the poem.Columbus, an explorer is searching for new lands for Queen Elizabeth, these tie in with the themes of discovery and power. He is discovers a new land that is inhabited by a race that he had never come across before. Lines eleven and twelve continue to tie in with the theme power, â€Å"deck watched heights he hoped for, rocks he dreamed, rise solid from my simple water. † Columbus believes that by discovering this new land he will not only obtain power and glory and riches from the Queen but also much more that he can obtain from this land.War and danger are also major themes in this poem. â€Å"As he watched the shore, the slaughter that his soldiers†¦Ã¢â‚¬  this shows us that Columbus’ invasion brought death and suffering to the inhabitants as they tried to protect themselves. Furthermore while referring to how the island tried to defend itself, the poet talks of the response of Mother Nature towards the invasion. â€Å"Parrots screamed†, emphasizes not only the disruption of nature but also how the parrots may have reacted to defend their habitat.In addition, â€Å"birds harshly hawking, without fear† and â€Å"Crabs snapped their claws† both continue to show the response of the natural habitat towards the invasion and how they will defend their land, showing Columbus that he is not welcome. For this reason, Columbus men retaliate and fight the indig enous people’s defense resulting in all out war. These themes slowly flow into a major theme, perception versus reality. In stanza twenty one the last four lines of this stanza are significant, â€Å"What did this journey mean, this ew world mean: dis- covery? Or a return to terrors he had sailed from. Known before? † These lines are significant because, Columbus has just left Spain after Spain is experiencing political controversies and he perceives that by discovering new land he will escape from this and hopefully put a stop to these fights within Spain’s empire.However, when Columbus discovers this land that is already inhabited and that he must now fight for it, the true reality is that he has left one fight, in Spain, to enter another, in this â€Å"new world. In the poem from The Emigrants its form gives us an idea of what actions are going to take place or are already taking place. The form of the poem is free verse, in addition, there is little punctua tion and the lines of the poem are broken up. The poet’s decision to use little punctuation gives an idea that the persona, an indigenous inhabitant of the island, is having continuous thoughts of ideas and actions of this abrupt invasion of Columbus and his people.This also ties in with the poem’s main form, free verse, the poem’s content, the persona’s thoughts are fluently and freely being stated mentally. Figuratively speaking, in a way, as each thought or idea comes to the persona’s mind, the poet quickly takes note of it. In addition, the poem is breaking into many stanzas also ties in with the above statements. An example of this can be seen in lines thirty four and thirty five where the word â€Å"discovery† is broken after its first syllable and carried on to the next line, â€Å"new world mean: dis- covery?Or a return to terrors. Even though throughout the poem the stanzas are broken apart mid sentence, these lines are not only si gnificant because they are broken apart by a word but also because it helps emphasize and symbolize the disruption and destruction that has been brought upon the island. Throughout the poem the poet uses many figurative. Such devices are onomatopoeia, alliteration, repetition, oxymoron and irony. An example of repetition can be seen in lines ten and twenty five â€Å"Columbus from his after-†, it is repetition because both lines are exactly the same.In addition, some examples of onomatopoeia and alliteration can be seen in lines seven â€Å"flapping flag†, eight â€Å"harshly hawking† and thirty eight â€Å"splashing silence. † These are examples of onomatopoeia because flapping, hawking and splashing are all sounds while the phrases are also examples of alliteration because respectively, there is the repetition of the f, h and s consonants. However, â€Å"splashing silence† is not only an example of onomatopoeia and alliteration but it is also an example of oxymoron. An oxymoron is where contradictory terms are joined together to form a phrase or statement. Splashing silence is an oxymoron because it is contradicting itself, where â€Å"splashing† makes a sound and whereas when there is â€Å"silence† there are no hearable sounds. As stated in the previous paragraph where there is a case of the word â€Å"discovery† breaking apart after its first syllable, it is also a form of irony. It is ironic because you can’t discover something that has already been discovered and is now being inhabited by a different race. It can also be interpreted cynically, where the writer can be seen as cynical towards Columbus and his actions.

The Subject of Affirmative Action

Considering the subject of affirmative action the following questions frequently are raised: Is there a clear understanding of affirmative action roles/goals? What are the pros/cons of these programs? What are the â€Å"loop holes† in the system? Does seniority play a role in affirmative action? Addressing these key questions may help us all in our daily routine, as administrators and/or potential administrator in the public/private sector. Affirmative action programs throughout the United States have long been a controversial issue particularly concerning employment practices (public/private) and university student and/or staff recruitment. Most public agencies have some type of instituted affirmative action program. According to Cheryl Perry-League, Director of Equal Opportunity of the Port of Oakland, every business operating on Port of Oakland owned land must have a standing affirmative action program on record and businesses bidding to do work for the Port of Oakl! and must have an acceptably diverse workforce. To understand the role and/or goals of affirmative actions programs we should define what the broad definition of what affirmative action is and what caused its development. The phase â€Å"affirmative action† was used in a racial discrimination context. Executive Order No. 10,925 issued by President John F. Kennedy in 1961. The order indicated that federal contractors should take affirmative action to ensure job applicants and employees are treated â€Å"without regard to their race, creed, or national origin. † A person could define this statement as an order to imply equal access and nothing else. Subsequently, Executive Order 11246 issued by President Johnson in September 1965, â€Å"mandated affirmative action goals for all federally funded programs and moved monitoring and enforcement of affirmative action programs out of the White House and into the Labor Department. Affirmative action â€Å"refers to various efforts to deliberately! take race, sex, and national origins into account to remedy past and current effects of discrimination. Its primary goal is to ensure that women and minorities are widely represented in all occupations and at all organizational levels† (Tompkins, 1995, p. 161). Another definition of affirmative action according to Barbara Bergmann is â€Å"planning and acting to end the absence of certain kinds of people-those who belong to groups that have been subordinated or left out-from certain jobs and schools† (1997 p. 7). Tracing the history of affirmative action, laws against racial discrimination have proved inadequate for workplace integration because they often provide remedies only after the fact. Affirmative action requires proactive steps to provide equal opportunities in employment as well as access to education. Many affirmative action programs were born from Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Title VII references to affirmative action programs were brought about â€Å"because of! the history of discrimination in the United States, certain groups are viewed as disadvantage in the current marketplace. Thus affirmative action laws impose temporary requirements to correct underutilization of these groups (e. g. , goals and timetables for increasing the number of minorities and women in a facility)† (Gutman, 1993, p. 9). Prior to these laws and the Title VII law, the U. S workforce was primarily dominated by white males. Although, still somewhat white male dominated, quotas that were designed through affirmative action programs have helped achieve some representation of women and minorities in the current work force. Some remedies brought about through affirmative action programs include goal setting, quotas, and timetables. The term goal â€Å"refers to specific outcomes which, when achieved, will result in equal employment opportunity and equitable representation† (Hall & Albrecht, 1979, p. 47-78). Goals and hiring quotas vary somewhat in their fu! nction. Goals generally are long range plans that organizations use and there are no expected minimum or maximum limitations. Quotas by comparison, â€Å"establishes a definite number of people who must be hired. A Company cannot by law, use quotas unless it has been ordered to do so by a court to remedy a past action† (Hall & Albrecht, 1979, p. 47-78). Deficiency correction is the primary target of goal setting through affirmative action. For an organization to be effective with goals, they must be realistic, attainable, and monitored by the human resource department. Affirmative action programs generally achieve their set goals through several common practices called outreach programs. First, there are special recruiting programs where women and minorities will most likely be found. These special outreach programs often target black universities and female dominated educational facilities. A second outreach program involves special advertising. Generally, this is also implemented ! in areas that are heavily populated by women and minorities similar to that of recruiting programs. Through outreach programs like the ones mentioned above, goals can be attained to achieve equity and representation without forgoing higher educated and skilled applicants. These programs can be justified because discrimination is still apparent in the United States today. A 1990 study by the University of Chicago†s National Opinion Research Center found that the majority of white Americans still believe blacks to be inferior. For example, 53% of non-black respondents said they thought blacks were less intelligent than whites, 62% said they thought blacks were less patriotic, 62% said they thought blacks were lazier, and 78% said they thought blacks â€Å"preferred to live off welfare. † The National Assessment of Educational Progress, a series of national standardize tests, evaluates students on their proficiency in reading, writing and science. They divide and co! mpare these results to better understand the effectiveness of public schools. Their results suggest a large imbalance in the educational quality received by whites and other races. The most noticeable imbalance in the three fundamentals of learning was the most important, reading. When students cannot read well, they usually cannot succeed in other subject areas. With the background of affirmative action and its programs established we should evaluate some of the problems with affirmative action and if affirmative action programs work. Opponents against affirmative action programs often believe that the system currently in place is a misuse of the original intent of affirmative action. The programs as they apply now are detrimental to the operation of the job market, to white males, and to the groups it is supposed to benefit. They further contend affirmative action causes reverse discrimination. It is not good practice for Opponents â€Å"pro† affirmative action to use it as a way! to make up for past discrimination. Another problem caused by affirmative action is that it often places a stigma on any groups, which receive preferential treatment, especially on individuals who earn positions because of their ability. Opponents of affirmative action programs believe that these programs when handled properly through the human resources department within an organization can minimize the negative references received regarding hiring practices. Nye states â€Å"that positive information regarding an employee†s job qualifications should minimize assumptions of incompetence associated with affirmative action hiring programs. In other words, when co-workers have information that clearly describes an individual†s job qualifications, they should be less likely to assume that he or she was hired solely on race or gender†(1998). By making this information available within the organization, it would help remove the pressures from the employee and co-worker regarding the hi! ring practices. This could further help the organization in the area of productivity, public relations within the community, and morale. By increasing morale, you maybe able to retain more employees, recruitment made easier, and motivate employees into a very competitive workforce. Opponents of affirmative action also do not believe that women and minorities will be treated fairly without affirmative action programs. Opportunities in today†s workplace are extremely competitive. Glazer states that â€Å"the battle over affirmative action today is a contest between a clear principle on the one hand and a clear reality on the other. The principle is that ability, qualifications, and merit, independent of race, national origin, or sex should prevail when one applies for a job or promotion, or for selective institutions for higher education, or when one bids for contracts. The reality is that strict adherence to this principle would result in few African Americans getting jobs, admissio! s, and contracts† (1998). With that being said, women and minorities cannot possibly have a fair chance in today†s society without positive affirmative action programs. However, with affirmative action, it has been noted that their incentives to achieve success may be decreased because â€Å"preferential treatment can lead to the patronization of minorities and women workers and students. By â€Å"patronization† I mean the setting of a lower standard of expected accomplishment because of the belief that these people are not as capable of meeting a higher standard† (Loury, 1997). With a white male dominated workforce, negative public perceptions, and low self-esteem of applicants, affirmative action offers a solution for race and gender equity. Further stated, everyone in America should be afforded equal opportunity. If this cannot be achieved voluntarily, then we must continue to take action to remedy these situations. Opponents of affirmative action won a landmark victory, in 1998, wi! th the passage of California†s Proposition 209. This proposition abolished all public-sector affirmative action programs in the state in employment, education and contracting. Clause(C) of Prop. 09 permits gender discrimination that is â€Å"reasonably necessary† to the â€Å"normal operation† of public education, employment and contracting. In 1998, The ban on use of affirmative action in admissions at the University of California went into effect. UC Berkeley had a 61% drop in admissions, and UCLA had a 36% decline. This decline strengthens the position of the Pro side of affirmative action. However, a contingency plan has been established. According to a source (who asked to remain nameless), UC Berkeley has a program to actively recruit more minority students that falls out of the guidelines established by prop. 09. These types of â€Å"loop holes† can ultimately hurt the various studies on the effectiveness of anti-affirmative action laws. â€Å"Loop holes† are exceptions to the ! rules or standards. It†s a way around the system. Opponents for affirmative action might feel that the Washington State government utilized such a â€Å"loop hole† in 1997. Under an affirmative action program criticized as the ultimate example of preferential treatment by supporters against affirmative action, the Washington State government hired more white men than African Americans did or any other minority group. In fact, white men fell second to white women being hired (Brune). The program in question is Washington State†s â€Å"plus three† program, according to Tom Brune of the Seattle Times, â€Å"allows the state to hire people who qualify for affirmative action over finalists with higher job-test scores. White men qualify because the state†s affirmative action policy cover not only people of color and women, but also Vietnam-era veterans, disabled veterans and people with disabilities. Majority of the veterans are white men and nearly half of them are disabled in the State of Washin! gton†. Another example of how affirmative action works for the disadvantaged can be found in Hayward, California. Bonnie Kellogg was admitted into the government†s Small Business Administration program that gives her company competitive advantages in its quest for government and large corporate contracts. Prior to 1995, Kellogg†s chances of getting into this program, officially known as the 8(a) Business Development program, would have been slim to none. However, in 1995 court ruling stemming from a law suit by a white business owner alleging â€Å"reverse discrimination† relaxed government standards. This ruling as allow for whites, Egyptians and Iranians, who fall outside the SBA†s minority designation easier access to the program. This relaxation of the rules as helped non-minorities business owners greatly. Report K. Oanh Ha of the Knight Rider Tribune finds a, a big statistical change. From 1968 until mid-1998, only 40 businesses owned by whites and non-minorities out of 13,40! 0 firms nationally were admitted, were admitted into the 8(a) program. So far this year, 74 non-minority companies have been admitted. 1999) Seniority must be examined because in my opinion it is the most widely used preferential treatment policy in the American workplace? With affirmative action being view as preference by many Americans and seniority being an unchallenged â€Å"rule-of-thumb. † In an article by Paul Rockwell he explains, â€Å"The seniority system may be legitimate, but it is no less preferential in its execution than affirmative action. When layoffs take place by seniority, many highly skilled women, many well-qualified people of color, among others, are bumped out of their jobs by less qualified older white males. In a seniority system, the last hired is the first fired, whether the employee is more skilled and competent than an employee protected by seniority. (1999). † Richard Lester, author of Manpower Planning, believes that seniority places less qualifi! ed employees ahead of employees who are often better educated, more skilled in computers. Arthur Whitehill & Shin Ichi Takezawa in Work Ways, concluded the same thoughts â€Å"Younger worker in some cases are more competent than older workers because of [them being} better education, greater adaptability and physical fitness. The public sector and much of the private sector have recognized seniority for quite sometime. We can find this system practiced by older teachers at various universities who are often protected by tenure. Professor Daniel Barber has even stated in candid conversion that when he was the department chair for the Master of Public Administration he took care of the tenured faculty first. Knowing this, why do Opponents of affirmative action, have appeared to be, judgmental of about so-called â€Å"merit† and â€Å"preference†, why isn†t there the same concern about the biggest workplace exception to strict meritocracy – Seniority? Seniority is yet another way to protect th! e â€Å"good ‘o boys networks†. Found in many of the historically white male dominated professions, for example, Firefighters, police, school superintendents, and college professors. Coming from a public sector background (Disabled Army War Veteran, Bureau of Prisons office administrator, Department of Veterans Affairs administrator, and to many federal internships to count) I support the seniority system in those places where affirmative action is still in place. Workplace should reflect the diversity of the community it serves, seniority is a fair system of labor management relations. Seniority gives employees for the personnel problems and private preferences of an employer. However, seniority is a widely used exception to strict merit system only if the workplace is democratic and applied with affirmative action the workplace can become more inclusive. Where affirmative action is repealed, seniority loses some of its legitimacy. I argue that only loses some of its legitimacy be! cause I personally was retained as an employee in a seniority situation. I was the last hired but I was not fired. In short, the scope of seniority and affirmative action are similar. The goal of seniority is job security and affirmative action is integration; both goals are good for America. The American labor movement has a major stake in seniority. The movement should embrace affirmative action because in good conscience it should not take advantage of one and not honor the other. Basically, benefiting for seniority practices but opposing affirmative action for others. If affirmative action is repealed, seniority should go as well. Labor unions and movements should concentrate on saving affirmative action. At a time when all progressive social policies are under attack, unity between women, labor, and people of color is imperative. Seniority and affirmative action should stand or fall together. CONCLUSION Ultimately, the controversy surrounding affirmative action programs t! oday will continue into the future. Society as a whole does not appear to be ready to relinquish its negative perception of the hiring practices brought about by Title VII. However, the benefits brought about this act has greatly increased the opportunity for women and minorities in employment that may not have otherwise been available. These programs have offered hope to some if not all-socioeconomic groups that they will be afforded the opportunity of equal employment and/or representation in our society. Furthermore, human resource departments in the public sector will have to become more skilled in implementing positive affirmative action programs if we are to reap the full benefits from them. Finally, Affirmative action is not a cure-all. It will not eliminate racial discrimination, nor will it eliminate competition for scare resources. Affirmative action programs can only ensure that everyone has a fair chance at what is available. They cannot direct us to the social pol! icies necessary so people do not have to compete for scarce resources in the first place. The larger question to ask is why are there not enough decent paying, challenging and safe jobs for everyone? Why are there not enough seats in the universities for everyone who wants an education? Expanding opportunity for people of color means expanding not only their access to existing jobs & education, but also removing the obstacles that cause these resources to be limited.